1. Do we need to teach pronunciation? The pendulum has swung back again, and most ESL teachers now agree that explicit pronunciation teaching is an essential part of language courses. On the one hand, confidence with pronunciation allows learners the interaction with native speakers that is so essential for all aspects of their linguistic development. On the other hand, poor pronunciation can mask otherwise good language skills, condemning learners to less than their deserved social, academic and work advancement. While there is little doubt about teachers' appreciation of the importance of pronunciation instruction, there is even less doubt about learners' own demand for effective pronunciation teaching: almost all learners rate this as a priority and an area in which they need more guidance. For any remaining sceptics, it may be worth briefly rehearsing the following responses to reasons sometimes given for not teaching pronunciation explicitly in an ESL program. a) it is true that learners are very unlikely to attain a native-like accent - but their intelligibility can be greatly improved by effective pronunciation teaching; b) it is true that pronunciation improves most through the gradual intuitive changes brought about by real interaction with native speakers - but for a large proportion of ESL learners the skills that enable this type of interaction do not come naturally; most need a 'leg-up' from explicit pronunciation teaching. c) it is true that it is offensive to prescribe an 'accent norm' to which learners must assimilate, and it is true that people should be free to express themselves in whatever accent they choose - but it is not true that this freedom is given by withholding pronunciation teaching. On the contrary, it is effective pronunciation teaching that offers learners a genuine choice in how they express themselves. 2. The problem: not whether to teach, but how to teach, pronunciation Despite widespread agreement about the importance of pronunciation teaching, in ESL courses around the country pronunciation is the aspect of language that receives least attention. The reason is not unwillingness to teach pronunciation, but uncertainty as to how best to help learners. This is of course not to discount the contribution of significant numbers of gifted pronunciation teachers. The problem is that the effectiveness of these teachers is based largely on individual experience and insights. Very little training in pronunciation teaching is given in TESOL programs. For those already teaching who seek to improve their skills, the literature on phonological theory and English phonetics is often (with notable exceptions) found to be opaque, and of little applicability in the classroom. The question, then, is not whether to teach pronunciation, but how to teach pronunciation. I have been developing a theoretical approach to phonology that I like to think is useful in this regard. It sees phonology not as computational processing, as is common in generative models, but in a communicative and meaning-based framework. Without going into technical detail here, I would like to consider some implications for pronunciation teaching. 3. How not to teach pronunciation The demonstrated ineffectiveness of drilling phonemes, minimal pairs and stilted dialogues was a large part of the reason that pronunciation was all but dropped from language classes with the introduction of the communicative methods. Basing lessons around detailed descriptions of the articulation of sounds, intensive IPA transcription, or lectures on English phonology are also minimal in their effectiveness, while at the same time placing high knowledge demands not just on learners but also on teachers. Many teachers consider their own expertise in these areas to be inadequate, preferring to delegate pronunciation classes to those with more knowledge. The point I wish to make very strongly in this paper is that while knowledge of English phonetics and phonology is certainly useful (recall that I write as a professional phonetician!), it is not in itself what is needed for ESL pronunciation classes. Much more important is for teachers to have insight into the kinds of problems learners face in pronouncing English, and tools to provide for their needs at different stages. Let us change the focus for a moment, then, from teachers to learners. 4. Why is pronunciation so difficult to learn? Pronunciation is one of the most difficult areas for learners, as well as for teachers. In quest of effective teaching, it is worth diagnosing carefully the nature of the difficulties that they face. a) There is a significant skill component for learners. Pronunciation is not just a cognitive 'knowing-that', it is also a physical 'knowing-how', similar to playing a sport or musical instrument. Learners need motivation and time to really practise pronunciation. It is very much worth spending class time discussing with learners their own ideas about